Leaderboards
Updates
- 2026-04-08: [Per-dataset linear probing performance] GenBio-PathFM added to the per-dataset linear probing table.
- 2026-04-08: [SPIDER Leaderboard] GenBio-PathFM added to the SPIDER leaderboard.
- 2026-04-08: [Up-to-date Rank-sum Leaderboard] GenBio-PathFM added to the updated rank-sum leaderboard.
- 2026-04-01: [Per-dataset linear probing performance] A new table with all linear probing results was added.
- 2025-12-07: [SPIDER Leaderboard] OpenMidnight added to the SPIDER leaderboard.
- 2025-12-07: [Up-to-date Rank-sum Leaderboard] OpenMidnight added to the updated rank-sum leaderboard.
- 2025-11-21: [SPIDER Leaderboard] H0-mini added to the SPIDER leaderboard.
- 2025-11-21: [Up-to-date Rank-sum Leaderboard] H0-mini added to the updated rank-sum leaderboard.
- 2025-11-14: [SPIDER Leaderboard] DINOv3-S, DINOv3-B, DINOv3-L, GIGAPATH, KAIKO-S/16, KAIKO-B/16 added to the SPIDER leaderboard.
- 2025-11-14: [Up-to-date Rank-sum Leaderboard] GIGAPATH, KAIKO-S/16, KAIKO-B/16 added to the updated rank-sum leaderboard.
- 2025-10-30: [Up-to-date Rank-sum Leaderboard] A new up-to-date rank-sum leaderboard was added. This is an update of the rank-sum leaderboard (Table 4) in our paper with new datasets and models, e.g. here we added results for SPIDER datasets and DINOv3 model variants.
- 2025-10-27: [Original (paper) Rank-sum Leaderboard] Our arXiv paper was updated and now the rank-sum table in it (Table 4) matches exactly our Original (paper) Rank-sum Leaderboard.
- 2025-10-06: [Zero-shot VLM Classification Leaderboard] A new zero-shot classification task was integrated into THUNDER. Results are presented in a dedicated leaderboard below.
- 2025-09-30: [SPIDER Leaderboard] Four SPIDER datasets have been integrated into THUNDER. We have created a leaderboard dedicated to SPIDER datasets below.
- 2025-09-01: [Original (paper) Rank-sum Leaderboard] Segmentation results were updated (small changes based on improved performance for all models on the ocelot dataset only -> Related commit). Segmentation and global rankings do no thus match exactly (a few small differences only) Table 4 from the current version of our paper. The paper will be updated soon. [This was now updated on 2025-10-30]
🏆 Up-to-date Rank-sum Leaderboard
This leaderboard is an updated version of the rank-sum table (Table 4) in our original paper.
The following was added (compared with paper results):
- New datasets: SPIDER datasets (SPIDER-Breast, SPIDER-Colorectal, SPIDER-skin, SPIDER-thorax -- only classification tasks, i.e. all tasks except segmentation).
- New models: DINOv3 model variants (DINOv3-S, DINOv3-B, DINOv3-L), GIGAPATH, KAIKO-S/16, KAIKO-B/16, OpenMidnight, GenBio-PathFM.
| Model | Domain | Type | KNN ↑ | Lin. prob. ↑ | Few-shot ↑ | Seg.↑ | Calib. ↓ | Adv. attack ↓ | Rank sum ↓ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HIBOU-B | Histopathology | VM | 78.9 (12) | 81.2 (16) | 76.3 (7) | 67.8 (10) | 3.2 (4) | 52.7 (17) | 66 (10) |
| HIBOU-L | Histopathology | VM | 78.6 (15) | 83.7 (7) | 73.8 (13) | 68.6 (6) | 4.7 (16) | 39.5 (9) | 66 (10) |
| H-OPTIMUS-0 | Histopathology | VM | 81.4 (6) | 83.8 (6) | 76.2 (8) | 65.2 (13) | 4.0 (10) | 43.9 (14) | 57 (8) |
| H-OPTIMUS-1 | Histopathology | VM | 82.5 (4) | 85.1 (3) | 77.3 (4) | 64.5 (15) | 3.5 (6) | 57.4 (20) | 52 (6) |
| MIDNIGHT | Histopathology | VM | 79.9 (8) | 84.7 (5) | 71.5 (18) | 68.8 (5) | 2.9 (2) | 37.0 (6) | 44 (4) |
| PHIKON | Histopathology | VM | 75.7 (19) | 80.9 (18) | 73.6 (14) | 68.0 (9) | 5.8 (20) | 33.5 (3) | 83 (17) |
| PHIKON2 | Histopathology | VM | 73.9 (20) | 79.7 (19) | 71.8 (17) | 67.4 (11) | 3.9 (9) | 43.8 (13) | 89 (18) |
| UNI | Histopathology | VM | 80.8 (7) | 83.5 (8) | 78.1 (3) | 67.8 (10) | 3.8 (8) | 40.3 (10) | 46 (5) |
| UNI2-H | Histopathology | VM | 83.3 (2) | 85.7 (1) | 79.8 (1) | 69.0 (4) | 3.9 (9) | 31.7 (2) | 19 (1) |
| VIRCHOW | Histopathology | VM | 77.4 (18) | 82.8 (11) | 71.8 (17) | 69.2 (2) | 4.5 (14) | 38.3 (7) | 69 (11) |
| VIRCHOW2 | Histopathology | VM | 82.9 (3) | 84.8 (4) | 73.9 (12) | 69.3 (1) | 3.9 (9) | 31.1 (1) | 30 (2) |
| CONCH | Histopathology | VLM | 78.8 (13) | 81.9 (13) | 73.4 (15) | 68.3 (7) | 4.1 (11) | 57.3 (19) | 78 (14) |
| CONCH 1.5 | Histopathology | VLM | 79.9 (8) | 82.4 (12) | 75.0 (11) | 68.8 (5) | 4.6 (15) | 75.8 (30) | 81 (16) |
| KEEP | Histopathology | VLM | 81.5 (5) | 83.2 (9) | 77.1 (5) | 68.0 (9) | 4.0 (10) | 44.9 (15) | 53 (7) |
| MUSK | Histopathology | VLM | 77.7 (17) | 81.1 (17) | 71.9 (16) | 65.1 (14) | 4.0 (10) | 71.9 (29) | 103 (19) |
| PLIP | Histopathology | VLM | 70.2 (25) | 74.0 (27) | 64.1 (22) | 58.5 (26) | 4.5 (14) | 60.8 (21) | 135 (25) |
| QUILTNET | Histopathology | VLM | 70.4 (24) | 73.9 (28) | 65.6 (20) | 58.9 (25) | 5.8 (20) | 55.6 (18) | 135 (25) |
| DINOv2-B | Natural-image | VM | 69.0 (27) | 76.6 (24) | 60.2 (24) | 59.8 (23) | 5.0 (18) | 66.1 (24) | 140 (26) |
| DINOv2-L | Natural-image | VM | 70.6 (23) | 77.0 (23) | 58.7 (25) | 59.6 (24) | 4.9 (17) | 64.4 (23) | 135 (25) |
| ViT-B/16 | Natural-image | VM | 66.2 (28) | 74.7 (26) | 57.3 (27) | 61.0 (21) | 4.0 (10) | 47.0 (16) | 128 (24) |
| ViT-L/16 | Natural-image | VM | 69.3 (26) | 75.5 (25) | 56.9 (28) | 63.1 (18) | 4.3 (13) | 43.9 (14) | 124 (23) |
| CLIP-B/32 | Natural-image | VLM | 63.0 (30) | 68.8 (30) | 52.3 (29) | 56.0 (27) | 4.9 (17) | 63.6 (22) | 155 (28) |
| CLIP-L/14 | Natural-image | VLM | 65.7 (29) | 73.6 (29) | 58.1 (26) | 60.8 (22) | 3.8 (8) | 70.5 (28) | 142 (27) |
| DINOv3-B | Natural-image | VM | 70.6 (23) | 77.4 (21) | 64.8 (21) | 63.4 (17) | 3.7 (7) | 70.1 (27) | 116 (22) |
| DINOv3-S | Natural-image | VM | 72.0 (21) | 77.1 (22) | 65.7 (19) | 62.0 (20) | 2.8 (1) | 66.9 (25) | 108 (20) |
| DINOv3-L | Natural-image | VM | 71.5 (22) | 77.9 (20) | 61.8 (23) | 62.6 (19) | 3.0 (3) | 68.9 (26) | 113 (21) |
| GIGAPATH | Histopathology | VM | 79.5 (10) | 82.9 (10) | 75.5 (9) | 63.5 (16) | 3.4 (5) | 42.1 (11) | 61 (9) |
| KAIKO-S/16 | Histopathology | VM | 78.2 (16) | 81.7 (14) | 75.1 (10) | 66.8 (12) | 4.6 (15) | 42.5 (12) | 79 (15) |
| KAIKO-B/16 | Histopathology | VM | 78.7 (14) | 81.4 (15) | 76.4 (6) | 66.8 (12) | 5.0 (18) | 38.8 (8) | 73 (12) |
| H0-mini | Histopathology | VM | 79.7 (9) | 83.8 (6) | 75.0 (11) | 69.1 (3) | 3.8 (8) | 34.3 (4) | 41 (3) |
| OpenMidnight | Histopathology | VM | 79.3 (11) | 84.7 (5) | 43.7 (30) | 69.1 (3) | 5.4 (19) | 38.3 (7) | 75 (13) |
| GenBio-PFM | Histopathology | VM | 83.4 (1) | 85.3 (2) | 79.4 (2) | 68.2 (8) | 4.2 (12) | 34.9 (5) | 30 (2) |
🏆 Original (paper) Rank-sum Leaderboard
This leaderboard exactly reproduces the rank-sum table (Table 4) presented in our original paper.
| Model | Domain | Type | KNN ↑ | Lin. prob. ↑ | Few-shot ↑ | Seg.↑ | Calib. ↓ | Adv. attack ↓ | Rank sum ↓ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HIBOU-B | Histopathology | VM | 75.8 (10) | 78.0 (14) | 74.2 (6) | 67.8 (10) | 3.7 (2) | 52.8 (14) | 56 (7) |
| HIBOU-L | Histopathology | VM | 75.2 (12) | 81.2 (7) | 70.4 (12) | 68.6 (6) | 5.5 (18) | 40.0 (5) | 60 (8) |
| H-OPTIMUS-0 | Histopathology | VM | 79.2 (5) | 81.4 (5) | 73.4 (7) | 65.2 (13) | 4.7 (13) | 44.2 (9) | 52 (6) |
| H-OPTIMUS-1 | Histopathology | VM | 80.5 (3) | 83.3 (2) | 74.8 (4) | 64.5 (15) | 4.1 (4) | 58.0 (17) | 45 (5) |
| MIDNIGHT | Histopathology | VM | 78.2 (8) | 82.9 (3) | 70.6 (11) | 68.8 (4) | 3.2 (1) | 36.3 (4) | 31 (3) |
| PHIKON | Histopathology | VM | 72.8 (14) | 78.4 (13) | 72.2 (10) | 68.0 (9) | 6.4 (22) | 34.4 (3) | 71 (11) |
| PHIKON2 | Histopathology | VM | 70.1 (15) | 76.5 (15) | 70.1 (13) | 67.4 (12) | 4.6 (11) | 45.6 (11) | 77 (12) |
| UNI | Histopathology | VM | 78.8 (6) | 81.3 (6) | 76.4 (2) | 67.8 (11) | 4.3 (7) | 42.8 (7) | 39 (4) |
| UNI2-H | Histopathology | VM | 81.7 (1) | 83.9 (1) | 78.4 (1) | 69.0 (3) | 4.5 (8) | 34.3 (2) | 16 (1) |
| VIRCHOW | Histopathology | VM | 74.2 (13) | 80.2 (10) | 68.5 (15) | 69.2 (2) | 5.5 (20) | 41.0 (6) | 66 (10) |
| VIRCHOW2 | Histopathology | VM | 81.2 (2) | 82.7 (4) | 72.6 (9) | 69.3 (1) | 4.6 (10) | 33.6 (1) | 27 (2) |
| CONCH | Histopathology | VLM | 77.3 (9) | 80.2 (11) | 73.1 (8) | 68.3 (7) | 4.3 (6) | 55.0 (15) | 56 (7) |
| CONCH 1.5 | Histopathology | VLM | 78.6 (7) | 80.8 (9) | 74.6 (5) | 68.8 (5) | 4.9 (14) | 75.3 (23) | 63 (9) |
| KEEP | Histopathology | VLM | 79.7 (4) | 81.1 (8) | 75.8 (3) | 68.0 (8) | 4.7 (12) | 44.7 (10) | 45 (5) |
| MUSK | Histopathology | VLM | 75.6 (11) | 79.0 (12) | 70.0 (14) | 65.1 (14) | 4.5 (9) | 69.3 (22) | 82 (13) |
| PLIP | Histopathology | VLM | 67.8 (19) | 71.0 (22) | 63.4 (17) | 58.5 (22) | 4.9 (15) | 56.9 (16) | 111 (18) |
| QUILTNET | Histopathology | VLM | 68.3 (17) | 71.0 (21) | 65.7 (16) | 58.9 (21) | 7.0 (23) | 52.7 (13) | 111 (18) |
| DINOv2-B | Natural-image | VM | 67.9 (18) | 74.8 (17) | 61.0 (18) | 59.8 (19) | 5.5 (21) | 65.8 (20) | 113 (19) |
| DINOv2-L | Natural-image | VM | 69.6 (16) | 75.3 (16) | 59.2 (19) | 59.6 (20) | 5.3 (17) | 64.5 (19) | 107 (17) |
| ViT-B/16 | Natural-image | VM | 64.4 (21) | 71.9 (19) | 57.8 (21) | 61.0 (17) | 3.9 (3) | 46.8 (12) | 93 (14) |
| ViT-L/16 | Natural-image | VM | 67.5 (20) | 72.8 (18) | 56.5 (22) | 63.1 (16) | 5.0 (16) | 44.1 (8) | 100 (15) |
| CLIP-B/32 | Natural-image | VLM | 61.9 (23) | 65.8 (23) | 53.3 (23) | 56.0 (23) | 5.5 (19) | 60.4 (18) | 129 (20) |
| CLIP-L/14 | Natural-image | VLM | 64.2 (22) | 71.3 (20) | 58.2 (20) | 60.8 (18) | 4.2 (5) | 67.8 (21) | 106 (16) |
🏆 SPIDER Leaderboard
F1-score on test sets of SPIDER datasets and average across datasets for the knn and linear probing tasks. The considered datasets are:
- Br: SPIDER-Breast
- Co: SPIDER-Colorectal
- Sk: SPIDER-skin
- Th: SPIDER-thorax
| Model | Domain | Type | KNN ↑ | Linear probing ↑ | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Br | Co | Sk | Th | Avg | Br | Co | Sk | Th | Avg | |||
| HIBOU-B | Histopathology | VM | 83.3 (2) | 88.1 (1) | 87.7 (8) | 93.4 (3) | 88.1 (5) | 86.6 (4) | 90.7 (2) | 91.1 (9) | 94.5 (4) | 90.7 (5) |
| HIBOU-L | Histopathology | VM | 83.6 (1) | 88.1 (1) | 90.7 (3) | 93.5 (2) | 89.0 (1) | 88.0 (1) | 89.8 (8) | 93.3 (2) | 94.1 (6) | 91.3 (1) |
| H-OPTIMUS-0 | Histopathology | VM | 81.7 (6) | 87.8 (3) | 89.3 (5) | 93.8 (1) | 88.2 (4) | 87.2 (2) | 89.9 (7) | 91.9 (6) | 94.4 (5) | 90.8 (4) |
| H0-mini | Histopathology | VM | 80.9 (9) | 88.0 (2) | 86.2 (11) | 92.8 (6) | 87.0 (8) | 86.0 (7) | 90.2 (6) | 90.4 (12) | 93.4 (11) | 90.0 (9) |
| H-OPTIMUS-1 | Histopathology | VM | 83.0 (3) | 87.8 (3) | 91.1 (2) | 91.5 (13) | 88.3 (3) | 86.1 (6) | 90.3 (5) | 92.3 (4) | 93.6 (10) | 90.6 (6) |
| KAIKO--S/16 | Histopathology | VM | 76.8 (19) | 85.4 (9) | 82.4 (17) | 92.7 (7) | 84.3 (14) | 83.1 (13) | 88.4 (12) | 88.6 (14) | 93.1 (13) | 88.3 (14) |
| KAIKO--B/16 | Histopathology | VM | 77.8 (16) | 85.3 (10) | 82.5 (16) | 92.0 (12) | 84.4 (13) | 81.9 (15) | 88.5 (11) | 87.4 (17) | 93.3 (12) | 87.8 (15) |
| MIDNIGHT | Histopathology | VM | 77.1 (18) | 84.9 (12) | 85.7 (12) | 92.7 (7) | 85.1 (12) | 86.1 (6) | 89.6 (10) | 91.0 (10) | 94.4 (5) | 90.3 (7) |
| OpenMidnight | Histopathology | VM | 78.3 (15) | 83.5 (15) | 84.0 (13) | 91.3 (15) | 84.3 (14) | 84.5 (12) | 88.3 (13) | 90.5 (11) | 93.7 (9) | 89.2 (12) |
| GenBio-PFM | Histopathology | VM | 80.6 (10) | 88.0 (2) | 92.2 (1) | 93.0 (5) | 88.5 (2) | 86.2 (5) | 90.5 (3) | 93.5 (1) | 94.6 (3) | 91.2 (2) |
| PHIKON | Histopathology | VM | 78.9 (14) | 85.1 (11) | 83.2 (15) | 89.7 (18) | 84.2 (15) | 84.9 (11) | 88.5 (11) | 87.9 (15) | 92.4 (14) | 88.4 (13) |
| PHIKON2 | Histopathology | VM | 80.2 (11) | 86.5 (7) | 83.3 (14) | 91.4 (14) | 85.3 (11) | 86.0 (7) | 89.7 (9) | 87.2 (19) | 94.7 (2) | 89.4 (11) |
| GIGAPATH | Histopathology | VM | 81.5 (7) | 87.4 (4) | 86.9 (10) | 92.4 (10) | 87.1 (7) | 85.5 (10) | 90.3 (5) | 91.3 (7) | 93.8 (8) | 90.2 (8) |
| UNI | Histopathology | VM | 81.3 (8) | 88.0 (2) | 87.2 (9) | 91.2 (16) | 86.9 (9) | 85.7 (8) | 90.4 (4) | 91.2 (8) | 93.9 (7) | 90.3 (7) |
| UNI2-H | Histopathology | VM | 82.6 (4) | 87.1 (6) | 90.5 (4) | 92.5 (9) | 88.2 (4) | 86.7 (3) | 90.5 (3) | 92.5 (3) | 95.1 (1) | 91.2 (2) |
| VIRCHOW | Histopathology | VM | 79.3 (13) | 87.8 (3) | 88.8 (7) | 92.3 (11) | 87.0 (8) | 86.2 (5) | 90.2 (6) | 91.3 (7) | 94.7 (2) | 90.6 (6) |
| VIRCHOW2 | Histopathology | VM | 82.3 (5) | 88.0 (2) | 89.1 (6) | 92.6 (8) | 88.0 (6) | 87.2 (2) | 90.8 (1) | 92.0 (5) | 93.9 (7) | 91.0 (3) |
| CONCH | Histopathology | VLM | 75.1 (21) | 84.5 (13) | 81.7 (18) | 91.1 (17) | 83.1 (18) | 82.1 (14) | 87.9 (14) | 87.3 (18) | 91.0 (16) | 87.1 (17) |
| CONCH 1.5 | Histopathology | VLM | 75.9 (20) | 84.2 (14) | 83.3 (14) | 91.4 (14) | 83.7 (17) | 81.6 (16) | 87.4 (15) | 87.0 (20) | 92.1 (15) | 87.0 (18) |
| KEEP | Histopathology | VLM | 79.8 (12) | 87.2 (5) | 87.2 (9) | 93.1 (4) | 86.8 (10) | 85.6 (9) | 89.7 (9) | 89.3 (13) | 93.8 (8) | 89.6 (10) |
| MUSK | Histopathology | VLM | 77.2 (17) | 85.7 (8) | 82.5 (16) | 91.1 (17) | 84.1 (16) | 80.6 (17) | 87.9 (14) | 87.6 (16) | 93.3 (12) | 87.4 (16) |
| PLIP | Histopathology | VLM | 69.4 (23) | 79.9 (16) | 74.4 (19) | 86.4 (19) | 77.5 (19) | 77.1 (21) | 84.7 (21) | 82.1 (22) | 88.6 (19) | 83.1 (22) |
| QUILTNET | Histopathology | VLM | 69.9 (22) | 77.7 (22) | 73.4 (21) | 85.3 (20) | 76.6 (20) | 77.0 (22) | 82.9 (23) | 81.2 (26) | 88.5 (20) | 82.4 (25) |
| DINOv2-B | Natural-image | VM | 64.0 (29) | 77.5 (23) | 70.4 (26) | 78.1 (25) | 72.5 (26) | 76.0 (24) | 83.9 (22) | 80.1 (27) | 87.6 (24) | 81.9 (27) |
| DINOv2-L | Natural-image | VM | 66.1 (27) | 79.0 (19) | 71.4 (25) | 78.5 (24) | 73.8 (25) | 74.0 (26) | 85.3 (17) | 82.1 (22) | 87.7 (23) | 82.3 (26) |
| ViT-B/16 | Natural-image | VM | 63.6 (30) | 76.7 (24) | 68.7 (27) | 77.0 (27) | 71.5 (27) | 78.2 (20) | 84.7 (21) | 81.2 (26) | 87.9 (22) | 83.0 (23) |
| ViT-L/16 | Natural-image | VM | 66.5 (26) | 78.7 (21) | 71.8 (24) | 81.8 (21) | 74.7 (23) | 79.3 (18) | 85.1 (18) | 81.3 (25) | 88.5 (20) | 83.5 (20) |
| DINOv3-B | Natural-image | VM | 65.8 (28) | 78.9 (20) | 73.2 (22) | 80.5 (23) | 74.6 (24) | 76.5 (23) | 84.8 (20) | 81.6 (24) | 90.0 (18) | 83.2 (21) |
| DINOv3-L | Natural-image | VM | 66.9 (24) | 79.8 (17) | 73.1 (23) | 81.6 (22) | 75.3 (22) | 78.3 (19) | 86.3 (16) | 82.5 (21) | 90.1 (17) | 84.3 (19) |
| DINOv3-S | Natural-image | VM | 66.8 (25) | 79.5 (18) | 73.9 (20) | 81.6 (22) | 75.5 (21) | 75.0 (25) | 85.0 (19) | 81.8 (23) | 88.2 (21) | 82.5 (24) |
| CLIP-B/32 | Natural-image | VLM | 57.0 (32) | 71.0 (26) | 63.7 (29) | 73.7 (28) | 66.3 (29) | 69.0 (28) | 81.3 (25) | 75.8 (29) | 84.7 (26) | 77.7 (29) |
| CLIP-L/14 | Natural-image | VLM | 62.5 (31) | 74.6 (25) | 66.5 (28) | 77.4 (26) | 70.2 (28) | 73.6 (27) | 82.8 (24) | 78.5 (28) | 86.7 (25) | 80.4 (28) |
🏆 Zero-shot VLM Classification Leaderboard
F1-score on test sets of all supported datasets and average across datasets for the zero-shot classification task. Only VLM models with publicly released patch-level text encoders are included.
| Model | Domain | Type | bach | bracs | break_his | ccrcc | crc | esca | mhist | patch_camelyon | tcga_crc_msi | tcga_tils | tcga_uniform | wilds | spider_breast | spider_colorectal | spider_skin | spider_thorax | Avg |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CONCH | Histopathology | VLM | 56.1 (3) | 37.9 (2) | 53.6 (1) | 56.9 (2) | 51.8 (4) | 40.1 (1) | 60.8 (2) | 57.8 (3) | 21.6 (4) | 47.4 (5) | 37.9 (2) | 83.2 (2) | 30.7 (3) | 31.4 (3) | 35.1 (3) | 43.0 (3) | 46.6 (3) |
| KEEP | Histopathology | VLM | 63.4 (1) | 34.2 (3) | 45.0 (3) | 69.1 (1) | 80.6 (1) | 33.3 (2) | 41.3 (7) | 71.4 (1) | 15.5 (6) | 55.5 (2) | 44.9 (1) | 89.4 (1) | 37.7 (1) | 44.4 (1) | 60.7 (1) | 51.8 (2) | 52.4 (1) |
| MUSK | Histopathology | VLM | 62.5 (2) | 38.6 (1) | 52.6 (2) | 50.7 (3) | 57.9 (3) | 25.9 (4) | 63.8 (1) | 53.5 (5) | 22.7 (3) | 50.1 (3) | 32.4 (3) | 71.2 (3) | 36.3 (2) | 36.2 (2) | 48.5 (2) | 55.2 (1) | 47.4 (2) |
| PLIP | Histopathology | VLM | 42.7 (4) | 25.9 (5) | 25.6 (5) | 38.2 (5) | 61.4 (2) | 31.5 (3) | 53.9 (5) | 46.1 (7) | 16.3 (5) | 64.1 (1) | 10.3 (5) | 51.0 (6) | 14.6 (4) | 28.3 (4) | 23.5 (4) | 22.6 (4) | 34.7 (4) |
| QUILTNET | Histopathology | VLM | 30.3 (5) | 29.1 (4) | 37.5 (4) | 24.2 (6) | 44.2 (5) | 14.2 (5) | 57.1 (4) | 65.8 (2) | 50.4 (1) | 47.6 (4) | 12.3 (4) | 44.3 (7) | 13.9 (5) | 25.0 (5) | 18.5 (5) | 19.7 (5) | 33.4 (5) |
| CLIP-B/32 | Natural-image | VLM | 13.2 (7) | 7.5 (7) | 18.7 (6) | 21.8 (7) | 24.4 (7) | 9.8 (7) | 42.2 (6) | 48.1 (6) | 13.9 (7) | 21.6 (7) | 2.0 (7) | 56.8 (5) | 3.9 (7) | 6.1 (7) | 4.3 (7) | 5.5 (6) | 18.7 (7) |
| CLIP-L/14 | Natural-image | VLM | 27.1 (6) | 19.2 (6) | 5.8 (7) | 40.6 (4) | 41.1 (6) | 10.4 (6) | 58.0 (3) | 55.6 (4) | 49.4 (2) | 25.4 (6) | 7.4 (6) | 70.2 (4) | 7.3 (6) | 16.0 (6) | 6.6 (6) | 5.4 (7) | 27.8 (6) |
🏆 Per-dataset linear probing performance
| Model | Domain | Type | Linear probing performance (F1-score) ↑ | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| bach | bracs | break-h | ccrcc | crc | esca | mhist | pcam | tc-crc | tc-tils | tc-unif | wilds | spi-br | spi-co | spi-sk | spi-th | Avg | |||
| HIBOU-B | Histopathology | VM | 65.6 (20) | 61.7 (8) | 59.6 (25) | 84.3 (16) | 93.9 (7) | 77.5 (16) | 76.5 (30) | 93.4 (6) | 66.2 (10) | 89.6 (11) | 70.2 (18) | 97.1 (10) | 86.6 (4) | 90.7 (2) | 91.1 (9) | 94.5 (4) | 81.2 (16) |
| HIBOU-L | Histopathology | VM | 76.5 (8) | 62.7 (5) | 69.4 (13) | 88.4 (11) | 93.0 (13) | 77.5 (16) | 81.3 (14) | 93.3 (7) | 68.1 (2) | 90.3 (7) | 75.2 (14) | 98.1 (5) | 88.0 (1) | 89.8 (8) | 93.3 (2) | 94.1 (6) | 83.7 (7) |
| H-OPT-0 | Histopathology | VM | 69.7 (15) | 61.1 (10) | 66.0 (18) | 90.8 (6) | 93.5 (10) | 83.5 (9) | 82.8 (5) | 93.0 (9) | 67.3 (5) | 91.0 (2) | 79.3 (5) | 98.7 (2) | 87.2 (2) | 89.9 (7) | 91.9 (6) | 94.4 (5) | 83.8 (6) |
| H0-mini | Histopathology | VM | 71.3 (12) | 60.7 (11) | 69.0 (14) | 90.2 (8) | 95.8 (1) | 84.4 (7) | 79.9 (18) | 94.3 (2) | 66.5 (8) | 91.7 (1) | 78.2 (9) | 98.2 (4) | 86.0 (7) | 90.2 (6) | 90.4 (12) | 93.4 (11) | 83.8 (6) |
| H-OPT-1 | Histopathology | VM | 72.5 (11) | 64.3 (2) | 76.0 (9) | 91.7 (4) | 94.6 (4) | 87.1 (2) | 82.0 (10) | 93.3 (7) | 67.9 (4) | 91.0 (2) | 81.0 (3) | 98.2 (4) | 86.1 (6) | 90.3 (5) | 92.3 (4) | 93.6 (10) | 85.1 (3) |
| KAIKO-S | Histopathology | VM | 72.6 (10) | 61.5 (9) | 69.4 (13) | 84.9 (15) | 92.3 (16) | 76.8 (18) | 81.4 (13) | 90.4 (16) | 62.6 (18) | 90.1 (9) | 75.7 (12) | 95.9 (14) | 83.1 (13) | 88.4 (12) | 88.6 (14) | 93.1 (13) | 81.7 (14) |
| KAIKO-B | Histopathology | VM | 69.6 (16) | 59.4 (15) | 67.2 (16) | 81.7 (18) | 94.5 (5) | 78.5 (15) | 78.3 (25) | 90.4 (16) | 67.0 (6) | 90.2 (8) | 79.1 (6) | 95.6 (16) | 81.9 (15) | 88.5 (11) | 87.4 (17) | 93.3 (12) | 81.4 (15) |
| MIDNIGHT | Histopathology | VM | 87.9 (1) | 63.8 (3) | 56.7 (26) | 90.8 (6) | 95.6 (2) | 86.2 (4) | 80.2 (16) | 93.5 (5) | 65.6 (12) | 91.0 (2) | 85.2 (1) | 98.3 (3) | 86.1 (6) | 89.6 (10) | 91.0 (10) | 94.4 (5) | 84.7 (5) |
| O-Midnight | Histopathology | VM | 84.6 (3) | 59.4 (15) | 77.3 (7) | 92.0 (3) | 94.2 (6) | 79.8 (14) | 81.8 (11) | 93.2 (8) | 66.3 (9) | 91.0 (2) | 82.8 (2) | 96.5 (12) | 84.5 (12) | 88.3 (13) | 90.5 (11) | 93.7 (9) | 84.7 (5) |
| GenBio-PFM | Histopathology | VM | 78.1 (5) | 60.1 (12) | 76.6 (8) | 91.6 (5) | 95.6 (2) | 84.7 (6) | 83.2 (3) | 93.8 (3) | 68.0 (3) | 90.6 (5) | 79.9 (4) | 98.2 (4) | 86.2 (5) | 90.5 (3) | 93.5 (1) | 94.6 (3) | 85.3 (2) |
| PHIKON | Histopathology | VM | 69.3 (17) | 56.9 (17) | 60.0 (24) | 89.8 (9) | 92.1 (17) | 76.7 (19) | 78.1 (26) | 90.9 (13) | 63.1 (17) | 90.1 (9) | 76.6 (11) | 97.8 (6) | 84.9 (11) | 88.5 (11) | 87.9 (15) | 92.4 (14) | 80.9 (18) |
| PHIKON2 | Histopathology | VM | 64.7 (21) | 58.2 (16) | 53.0 (28) | 76.7 (26) | 92.0 (18) | 77.3 (17) | 79.2 (22) | 90.8 (14) | 61.1 (20) | 91.0 (2) | 77.7 (10) | 95.8 (15) | 86.0 (7) | 89.7 (9) | 87.2 (19) | 94.7 (2) | 79.7 (19) |
| GIGAPATH | Histopathology | VM | 70.7 (13) | 62.7 (5) | 65.4 (20) | 88.1 (12) | 94.7 (3) | 81.7 (12) | 81.7 (12) | 93.5 (5) | 68.0 (3) | 89.1 (13) | 74.4 (16) | 94.8 (17) | 85.5 (10) | 90.3 (5) | 91.3 (7) | 93.8 (8) | 82.9 (10) |
| UNI | Histopathology | VM | 73.0 (9) | 59.4 (15) | 70.8 (12) | 90.7 (7) | 93.1 (12) | 83.4 (10) | 82.4 (8) | 93.8 (3) | 65.9 (11) | 90.1 (9) | 75.3 (13) | 97.2 (9) | 85.7 (8) | 90.4 (4) | 91.2 (8) | 93.9 (7) | 83.5 (8) |
| UNI2-H | Histopathology | VM | 84.7 (2) | 65.4 (1) | 78.4 (4) | 89.5 (10) | 93.9 (7) | 86.4 (3) | 78.6 (23) | 95.0 (1) | 66.9 (7) | 90.4 (6) | 78.8 (7) | 98.9 (1) | 86.7 (3) | 90.5 (3) | 92.5 (3) | 95.1 (1) | 85.7 (1) |
| VIRCHOW | Histopathology | VM | 66.2 (19) | 59.8 (14) | 62.7 (22) | 91.7 (4) | 93.7 (9) | 84.3 (8) | 82.3 (9) | 93.6 (4) | 65.5 (13) | 90.7 (4) | 74.8 (15) | 97.6 (7) | 86.2 (5) | 90.2 (6) | 91.3 (7) | 94.7 (2) | 82.8 (11) |
| VIRCHOW2 | Histopathology | VM | 76.5 (8) | 62.4 (6) | 72.5 (11) | 93.6 (1) | 93.0 (13) | 88.9 (1) | 83.6 (2) | 92.8 (10) | 69.6 (1) | 90.9 (3) | 78.4 (8) | 90.0 (26) | 87.2 (2) | 90.8 (1) | 92.0 (5) | 93.9 (7) | 84.8 (4) |
| CONCH | Histopathology | VLM | 84.4 (4) | 60.0 (13) | 68.8 (15) | 88.1 (12) | 93.4 (11) | 80.1 (13) | 79.7 (20) | 90.6 (15) | 64.4 (15) | 88.1 (14) | 68.0 (20) | 97.2 (9) | 82.1 (14) | 87.9 (14) | 87.3 (18) | 91.0 (16) | 81.9 (13) |
| CONCH 1.5 | Histopathology | VLM | 76.8 (7) | 62.4 (6) | 75.3 (10) | 87.4 (13) | 93.8 (8) | 82.7 (11) | 81.2 (15) | 91.4 (12) | 62.3 (19) | 89.9 (10) | 69.4 (19) | 96.7 (11) | 81.6 (16) | 87.4 (15) | 87.0 (20) | 92.1 (15) | 82.4 (12) |
| KEEP | Histopathology | VLM | 77.0 (6) | 62.2 (7) | 65.9 (19) | 93.2 (2) | 94.7 (3) | 85.8 (5) | 76.8 (29) | 92.6 (11) | 64.9 (14) | 89.9 (10) | 72.7 (17) | 97.4 (8) | 85.6 (9) | 89.7 (9) | 89.3 (13) | 93.8 (8) | 83.2 (9) |
| MUSK | Histopathology | VLM | 69.9 (14) | 63.3 (4) | 77.6 (6) | 85.3 (14) | 91.1 (21) | 76.4 (20) | 80.0 (17) | 89.4 (17) | 63.2 (16) | 89.4 (12) | 66.0 (21) | 96.0 (13) | 80.6 (17) | 87.9 (14) | 87.6 (16) | 93.3 (12) | 81.1 (17) |
| PLIP | Histopathology | VLM | 63.9 (23) | 56.5 (19) | 47.2 (29) | 76.9 (25) | 88.2 (27) | 65.7 (28) | 78.5 (24) | 87.9 (20) | 56.0 (28) | 87.2 (16) | 54.9 (25) | 89.0 (27) | 77.1 (21) | 84.7 (21) | 82.1 (22) | 88.6 (19) | 74.0 (27) |
| QUILTNET | Histopathology | VLM | 58.4 (26) | 55.9 (21) | 62.4 (23) | 65.5 (29) | 92.5 (15) | 61.5 (30) | 73.5 (31) | 87.4 (21) | 59.6 (21) | 87.0 (17) | 54.1 (27) | 94.7 (18) | 77.0 (22) | 82.9 (23) | 81.2 (26) | 88.5 (20) | 73.9 (28) |
| DINOv2-B | Natural-image | VM | 64.4 (22) | 52.9 (25) | 77.8 (5) | 79.7 (22) | 90.3 (24) | 73.8 (22) | 82.6 (7) | 86.3 (24) | 58.6 (24) | 85.9 (20) | 54.4 (26) | 90.7 (24) | 76.0 (24) | 83.9 (22) | 80.1 (27) | 87.6 (24) | 76.6 (24) |
| DINOv2-L | Natural-image | VM | 68.9 (18) | 50.6 (27) | 78.5 (3) | 81.4 (20) | 90.7 (22) | 72.1 (25) | 82.3 (9) | 87.2 (22) | 59.3 (22) | 85.9 (20) | 56.2 (23) | 90.3 (25) | 74.0 (26) | 85.3 (17) | 82.1 (22) | 87.7 (23) | 77.0 (23) |
| ViT-B | Natural-image | VM | 57.0 (28) | 56.6 (18) | 64.5 (21) | 79.1 (23) | 90.6 (23) | 62.7 (29) | 77.6 (27) | 84.6 (27) | 59.1 (23) | 85.8 (21) | 53.4 (29) | 91.3 (23) | 78.2 (20) | 84.7 (21) | 81.2 (26) | 87.9 (22) | 74.7 (26) |
| ViT-L | Natural-image | VM | 56.9 (29) | 54.8 (23) | 66.3 (17) | 77.1 (24) | 92.8 (14) | 67.9 (26) | 79.8 (19) | 85.7 (25) | 56.8 (27) | 87.5 (15) | 55.9 (24) | 92.6 (22) | 79.3 (18) | 85.1 (18) | 81.3 (25) | 88.5 (20) | 75.5 (25) |
| CLIP-B | Natural-image | VLM | 51.1 (31) | 52.4 (26) | 40.0 (30) | 73.7 (28) | 87.3 (28) | 61.0 (31) | 77.5 (28) | 82.7 (28) | 49.0 (31) | 83.8 (23) | 47.9 (30) | 83.5 (28) | 69.0 (28) | 81.3 (25) | 75.8 (29) | 84.7 (26) | 68.8 (30) |
| CLIP-L | Natural-image | VLM | 63.5 (24) | 56.4 (20) | 54.5 (27) | 75.9 (27) | 88.3 (26) | 67.6 (27) | 79.6 (21) | 85.6 (26) | 52.0 (30) | 85.0 (22) | 54.1 (27) | 93.2 (21) | 73.6 (27) | 82.8 (24) | 78.5 (28) | 86.7 (25) | 73.6 (29) |
| DINOv3-B | Natural-image | VM | 60.3 (25) | 55.4 (22) | 81.8 (2) | 80.7 (21) | 89.5 (25) | 72.9 (23) | 82.7 (6) | 88.0 (19) | 57.2 (26) | 86.7 (18) | 56.2 (23) | 93.6 (20) | 76.5 (23) | 84.8 (20) | 81.6 (24) | 90.0 (18) | 77.4 (21) |
| DINOv3-L | Natural-image | VM | 57.9 (27) | 54.6 (24) | 77.3 (7) | 82.5 (17) | 91.5 (19) | 76.0 (21) | 84.1 (1) | 88.8 (18) | 55.5 (29) | 87.0 (17) | 59.3 (22) | 94.8 (17) | 78.3 (19) | 86.3 (16) | 82.5 (21) | 90.1 (17) | 77.9 (20) |
| DINOv3-S | Natural-image | VM | 56.4 (30) | 56.5 (19) | 82.9 (1) | 81.6 (19) | 91.4 (20) | 72.6 (24) | 82.9 (4) | 86.5 (23) | 57.7 (25) | 86.3 (19) | 53.9 (28) | 94.1 (19) | 75.0 (25) | 85.0 (19) | 81.8 (23) | 88.2 (21) | 77.1 (22) |